A Brief Panorama of Czech Theatre

Published in WECT (World Encyclopedy of Contemporary Theatre)

Teaching material only for internal use prepared by editorial departement of Theatre Institut Prague under the leading of Jana Patočková in 1992.
Editor: Ladislava Petišková. Co-authors: Vladimír Adamczyk, Helena Albertová, Drahomíra Čeporanová, Jindřich Černý, Miroslav Česal, Nina Malíková, Jana Patočková, Petr Pavlovský, Ladislava Petišková, Věra Ptáčková, Vladimír Vašut, Ivan Vojtěch.
Translation: Karolina Vočadlo

The origins of Czech theatre can be found in the dramatic elements of the Slavonic tribes', rites and customs. Theatrical history dates back to the Middle Ages with undisputed evidence of both medieval religious and medieval secular drama, which took place in various cities. Along with the Renaissance's developments in science and art throughout Europe, Czech humanist-inspired didactic theatre existed. Baroque folk theatre also played a significant role, with some of its traditions surviving into the twentieth century. Court theatre was mostly performed in foreign languages at country castles and palaces of nobility.

In 1724 the first public theatre, the Count Špork opera stage, opened in Prague. In 1739 Prague's Divadlo v Kotcích (Theatre in Kotce) became the home for various international groups interested in staging both opera and dramatic performances. This theatre also staged burlesque plays with Harlequin and Hanswurst figures, pantomime ballet, and the first attempts at Czech spoken professional theatre. Multi-cultural features of theatrical activity changed slowly from Italian to German dominance on stage.

In Prague during the second half of the eighteenth century, a small group of Czech patriots tried to revive the dying Czech language in theatre. The beginnings of professional performances in Czech are connected with the foundation of the Nostitz Theatre. Built by Count Nostitz-Rieneck in 1783, it was renamed the Stavovské divadlo (The Theatre of the Estates) during 1798. One of Central Europe's best equipped theatres during this time, it became the site of many important theatrical events, including the 1787 premiere of Don Giovanni, conducted by Mozart himself. In addition, the amateur stage, Vlastenské divadlo (The Patriotic Theatre) emerged in 1786 under the leadership of playwright and actor Václav THÁM (1756 - circa 1816), played an important role in this context.

In the first half of the nineteenth century, Czech theatrical activity focused on the Theatre of the Estates. Under the direction of dramatist Jan Nepomuk ŠTĚPÁNEK (1783 - 1844), a Czech language theatre group began performing alongside a German troupe on Sunday afternoons. Here, works by Štěpánek, writer Václav Kliment KLICPERA (1792 - 1859), the Romantic playwright and actor Josef Kajetán TYL (1808 - 1856), and composer František ŠKROUP (1801 - 1862) were brought to life. During the process known as the National Revival, the theatre became the platform for emancipation efforts of the nation. Simultaneously, various forms of puppet theatre developed in the country.

The first Prozatimní divadlo (Provisional Theatre) opened in 1862. A new Romantic composer Bedřich SMETANA (1824 - 1884) created the Czech national opera which became competitive on a European level largely because of his original works and conducting. Czech theatre's longing for recognition as a culturally independent entity culminated in the opening of the National Theatre, where opera, drama, and ballet were staged. Its building was constructed from 1868 - 1883 thanks to public funds. The creation of the National Theatre became a model for professional, travelling, and volunteer groups. A vast theatre network developed during the second half of the century in cities such as Plzeň and Brno.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, two important people assumed leading roles with the National Theatre: director Jaroslav KVAPIL (1868 - 1950), who introduced the proceedings of Symbolism and Impressionism on a predominantly Realistic oriented stage; and composer Karel KOVAŘOVIC (1862 - 1920), who improved the dramaturgy and the professional quality of the ensemble, leading to the modern conception of the opera stage. At this time, operatic works by Antonín DVOŘÁK (1841 - 1904) and Leoš JANÁČEK (1854 - 1928) were performed in Prague and Brno. The leading choreographer Augustin BERGER (1861 - 1945) and Achille VISCUSI (1865 - 1945) laid the groundwork for the development of Czech ballet. The Theatre of the Estates and the Neues Deutsches Theatre in Prague remained especially prominent along with the numerous German theatres performing in towns such as Ústí nad Labem, Liberec, and Brno, which were largely inhabited by German minorities.

At the forefront of theatrical activity in independent Czechoslovakia after 1918 was director Karel Hugo HILAR (1885 - 1935), an artist with a keen interest in Expressionism. His appointment as drama director of the National Theatre in 1921 opened up a rather traditional stage to progressive tendencies of the world and domestic theatre arts. Otakar OSTRČIL (1879 - 1935) led the great growth of opera.

In the field of dramaturgy, significant contributors included Karel ČAPEK (1890 - 1938), his brother Josef (1887 - 1945), and František LANGER (1888 - 1965) etc.

During the same period, a number of younger avant-garde artists emerged in Prague. In 1926 directors Jiří FREJKA (1904 - 1952) and Jindřich HONZL (1893 - 1953) founded Osvobozené divadlo (The Liberated Theatre) as a section of the artistic club Devětsil. Their vision of the modern stage was closely linked to the contemporary European avant-garde tendencies, especially those in Russia and France. These directors joined forces with the composer and director Emil František BURIAN (1904 - 1959) to form a different image of poetic theatre.

In 1930 J. Frejka, who promoted ideas of Constructivism and commedia dell'arte acting, moved to the National Theatre, and synthesized his artistic experience with the acting orientation of this large stage. E. F. Burian realized his program of synthetic and poetic theatre on the stage of D 34 (Theatre D 34). The focal point of J. Honzl's work shifted within a short period to the Surrealistic movement and cooperation with the actors and authors Jiří VOSKOVEC (1905 - 1981) and Jan WERICH (1905 - 1980). The Osvobozené divadlo (Liberated Theatre) became the centre of their buffoonery, developing from a special kind of linguistic humour. It remained a phenomenon that influenced the work of several future generations.

From 1939 to 1945, during the period of German wartime occupation, theatre in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia was largely censored and controlled by Nazi officials. For the most part, Czech drama was suppressed and foreign drama severaly limited. As the German occupation progressed, Jewish artists were forced to abandon careers in the theatre. Certain groups were forcibly shut down, such as D 34 (Theatre 34), and in 1944 entire theatres were closed.

During this dark period in Czech theatre, many major artists emigrated; some were sent to concentration camps, such as the writer Josef Čapek; and many others were executed: for example the dramatist Vladislav VANČURA (b. 1891), actress Anna LETENSKÁ (b. 1904), and director Josef SKŘIVAN (b. 1902) were all sentenced to death in 1942.

Numerous Czech of German speaking Jewish artists imprisoned in the Terezín ghetto added a unique chapter to theatre history. While waiting to be transported to extermination camps, they performed for children and adults. Composers Hans KRASA (1899 - 1944) and Viktor ULLMANN (1898 - 1943) even created new opera works there.

World War II was particularly detrimental to Prague's rich multicultural life and community. When the war ended, the long and mostly beneficial co-existence between Czech and German cultures ceased as well.

Theatre Since World War II

A period of relative political freedom occurred between 1945 and 1948. Most of the previously persecuted artists returned from abroad and from concentration camps. Theatres that had been controlled by the Germans were turned over to the state for use by Czech groups. At this time, Prague and other smaller cities experienced the spontaneous emergence of newly formed ensembles such as Velká opera 5. května (The Great Opera of the 5th of May) and Vesnické divadlo (The Village Theatre). Perhaps the most popular ensemble of the period was Divadlo satiry (Satire Theatre) in Prague.

A revival of interest in Eastern and Western theatrical art emerged. Many young enthusiasts followed the work of eminent representatives of the avant-garde before the Second World War. Two fundamental tendencies characterised play production during these years: stylised poetic theatre and contrasting, temporal, Realistic art. Theatre at this time was thus clearly tied to the rich development and continuity of the pre-war period.

In February 1948, the Communists took control of the country. Though their cultural policies secured social stability for theatres, free artistic development was stopped; and through the mid-1950s, dogmatic theories of Socialist realism dominated the stage. Virtually all contemporary western plays disappeared from the repertoires at this time, replaced by approved Soviet plays and dramatic works from other socialist countries. The domestic authors were forced to write in the newly approved "agit-prop" style. The official powers only allowed certain classical plays to be performed, while suppressing the best works of the pre-war playwrights. Even the acting styles had to conform to an ideologically-distorted interpretation of Stanislavski.

Once again, many theatres were forbidden to perform, including the Satire Theatre and the Great Opera; and many major artists were no longer permitted access to the stage. All theatre that was neither realistic nor Russian-like - especially in modern dance and pantomime - was suppressed. Policies were established not only by artistic directors, but also by the Communist Party's hierarchial system of the entire society, which included theatres. Members of the Party attended political congresses and conferences which set themes, styles of expression, and working methods for the theatre.

In charge of the Municipial Theatre at Vinohrady since 1945, J. Frejka was forced to leave at the beginning of the 1950s. Burian distanced himself from his creative work after some unsuccessful attempts at employing the government's desired style. Later, he renewed his previous staging techniques of the pre-war era. Other artists, such as Voskovec, chose once again to leave the country. Among the oppressed were Saša MACHOV (1904 - 1951) and Ivo VÁŇA-PSOTA (1906 - 1952), who laid the foundation of the modern Czech ballet. Both died as the victims of hatred in the political atmosphere.

In the mid-1950s, after the death of Stalin, a period so- called "the thaw" emerged when the political pressure slowly relaxed. At this time, Jan Werich and Miroslav HORNÍČEK (b. 1915) revived the clowning tradition of the Liberated Theatre on the stage of Divadlo satiry - ABC (The ABC Satire Theatre) which existed from 1955 to 1962. In this way, various levels of theatrical life began to express their disturbances with the official ideology.

During the 1960s Czech theatre experienced another brief period of relative political freedom, again returning to their original European contexts while retaining the financial advantages of working in a highly-subsidized cultural environment. This was especially true at the National Theatre in Prague and at the Státní divadlo (State Theatre) in Brno. At these theatres, the country's leading directors had outstanding actors and the best resources at their disposal.

From 1956 to 1961 director Otomar KREJČA (b. 1921) led the drama ensemble of the National Theatre. He synthesized the poetic vision of modern drama with the tradition of psychological, realistic acting. His achievements as well as the unique style of another extraordinary director, Alfréd RADOK (1914 - 1976) contributed to the most famous era of this theatre. Artists such as director Václav KAŠLÍK (1917 - 1989) and conductor Jaroslav KROMBHOLC (1918 - 1983) helped create a movement towards a new form of opera theatre. Radok's excellent film work compelled him ti begin a series of experiments involving the simultaneous use of both film and stage. These experiments ultimately led to the creation of the Laterna Magika (The Magic Lantern) in 1958, a project Radok collaborated on with his brother Emil (1918 - 1993) and the renowned stage designer, Josef SVOBODA (b. 1920).

Krejča left the National Theatre, and he started his own - the Divadlo za branou (Theatre Behind the Gate) during 1965 in Prague. This small company created a kind of theatre workshop, whose artistic program was greatly influenced by Chekhov's dramatic style.

At the same time, the younger generation was making itself known with the emergence of many small theatres - albeit a little belatedly - whose repertoires were similar to those of the European "cellar" theatres.

Founded in 1958 by Jiří SUCHÝ (b. 1931), Ivan VYSKOČIL (b. 1929), and Ladislav FIALKA (1931 - 1991), Divadlo na Zábradlí (Theatre on the Balustrade), became a significant centre of the younger generation. The company achieved international fame in the mid-1960s with Jan GROSSMAN's (1925 - 1993) contributions to Czech theatre in the movement of the Theatre of the Absurd.

The focal point of theatre in Moravia was traditionally in Brno where Státní divadlo Brno (the State Theatre Brno) developed an original variant of Brechtian drama and later a new version of folk baroque theatre, thanks to personalities such as director Evžen SOKOLOVSKÝ (1925-1998) and team of his colaboraters.

During this period numerous theatrical movements dominated Czech drama, ranging from Brechtian Theatre to the Theatre of the Absurd, from poetic theatre to clearly national plays. In the mid-1960s, pantomime and black-box theatre incorporated ballet and conducted many experiments with form and style. Cabarets flourished as did other dramatic forms, including satirical theatre and poetic theatre. Analogous processes were occurring in ballet and opera. Set design bloomed, the talent of Josef SVOBODA (b. 1920) largely contributing to its success. Czech theatre again found its place within the European mainstream.

The doors closed once again, however, in August 1968, when the Warsaw Past troops invaded the country. The so-called Prague Spring was followed by almost a year of continual opposition within the cultural community among others. As a result, the government, with the help of a massive network of secret police, finally decided to use force to wipe out artistic opposition.

The powers'strict restriction compelled many major artists to leave the country at this time. These artists included Alfréd RADOK, actor Jan TŘÍSKA (b. 1936) and actor and dramatist Pavel LANDOVSKÝ (b. 1936) as well as dramatists and writers Milan KUNDERA (b. 1929), Pavel KOHOUT (b. 1929), and Ludvík AŠKENAZY (1921 - 1986). Theatres such as Divadlo za branou (Theatre Behind the Gate) were closed down (1972).

Those artists who remained in the country were forced to leave the major cities. Among them were wuch important personalities as directors Jan GROSSMAN, Jan KAČER (b. 1935), and Miloš HYNŠT (b. 1921). A number of the best dramatists, such as Václav HAVEL (b. 1936) and Josef TOPOL (b. 1935) as well as eminent critics, theoreticians, and historians were not permitted to work in their fields and were, in effect, blacklisted. In fact, their names could not even appear in the media because the government did not want the nation to be influenced by their work. Even theatre magazines were forced to cease publication. Performances undesirable to the powers, including certain Soviet plays, were banned. International contacts were severely limited.

Throughout the 1970s, political struggles continued with younger artists adopting many of the "opposition" approaches of their banned predecessors. As a result, many productions at this time incorporated imaginative and coded political messages, especially the works of director Evald SCHORM (1931 - 1988) at Prague's Divadlo Na zábradlí (Theatre on the Balustrade) as well as those of Brno's Divadlo na provázku (Theatre on a String) and HaDivadlo (The Ha Theatre). As political pressure mounted in the largest cities, much of the creative activity shifted to the provinces. The development of theatrical art centered around a great number of small studio ensembles that emerged. This process caused marginal forms, such as pantomime and black theatre, to flourish. During the 1980s the provincial ensembles and especially the fringe theatres began to perform in the suburbs of Prague as well. This activity influenced an even wider spectrum of amateur and semi-professional theatres in Prague.

In the 1970s handwritten copies of banned works began to be circulated. From time to time, the texts of persecuted authors were performed under false names. Another response war the development of a form of theatre known as "bytové divadlo" (apartment theatre) in which especially actress Vlasta CHRAMOSTOVÁ (b. 1926) performed in private flats for selected audiences.

This situation as well as the constant scruting of a strong state censorship had unfavourable consequences on the quality of stage art in big towns. On the other hand, these circumstances evoked a higher quality of creative work in rural areas and counter-pressure from the political and artistic opposition.

In November 1989 theatres became the places where students on strike as well as other members of the dissatisfied public protested against the regime. With improvised programs they promoted the ideas of the Velvet Revolution's leaders, informing the audience about the political development in Prague and in other big towns. The Czech artists remained faithful to their cultural tradition.

The 1990s clearly represented quite another process in theatre art - the search for Czech theatre's new artistic profile. The Czech theatre's transformation process is being importantly stimulated by the attempts of adjusting the existing network to the new economic conditions, and, after all, also by searching for the place and function of theatre in society. In this situation a number of theatres whose existence was threatened have shown their ability to survive; formation of new companies, such as Kašpar (Casper), Divadlo bez zábradlí (Theatre Without a Balustrade) in Prague, or Městské divadlo (The City Theatre) in Mladá Boleslav, as well as changes in the traditional repertory theatres, such as Divadlo pod Palmovkou (The Theatre at Palmovka), and Divadlo Labyrint (The Labyrinth) was being accompanied by demise of other, formely renowned companies. Establishment of new conditions in which theatres could operate is a problem we still try to resolve.

Encouraging phenomena were for example the growing artistic success of young talented directors such as Petr LÉBL (1965-1999), Hana BUREŠOVÁ (b. 1959), Jakub ŠPALEK (b. 1968), Jan BORNA (b. 1960), J. A. PITÍNSKÝ (b. 1955), Vladimír MORÁVEK (b. 1965) and Michal DOČEKAL (b. 1965), the establishment of Centrum experimentálního divalda (The Centre of Experimental Theatre) in Brno in 1993, and the opening of theatres such as the Archa (The Ark) in 1994, Spirála (The Spiral) in 1991, and Dejvické divadlo (The Dejvice Theatre) in 1992, as well as the increase in various theatre activities even outside of the traditional theatre centres of Bohemia and Moravia.

Artistic Profile

Prague, the nation's capital, is the country's largest city, with a 1990 population of 1,2 million. This city also boast the highest concentration of theatre companies in the country. The largest theatre institution in the country is Prague's Národní divadlo (the National Theatre).

The National Theatre has three ensembles: a drama company as well as ballet and opera companies. These groups alternate use in the National Theatre's various buildings. The main building is used for drama, opera, and ballet just like another building, the Theatre of the Estates. The third small space of the National Theatre in Kolowrat Palace is used only for experimental performances. Until 1991 the National Theatre also owned the Smetana Theatre (now the State Opera) and the New Scene, built in 1983 and now occupied by the Laterna Magika (The Magic Lantern).

As the country's first official theatre, the National Theatre faced the strongest political pressures during the period immediately following World War II. In the post-1956 era following Stalin's death, the National Theatre reached new artistic heights because of its exceptionally talented directors, designers, and actors.

From 1956 to 1961 director Otomar KREJČA and dramaturge Karel KRAUS (b. 1920) guided the National Theatre. During the next few years, the company explored theatrical classics in a poetic style, ranging from Chekhov's The Seagull (1960) to Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet (1963). Krejča and Kraus also introduced a number of new Czech plays to the National Theatre's stage.

Another extraordinary director, Alfréd RADOK, worked with Krejča at the National Theatre. During his career Radok directed productions in a wide range of forms and styles, including dramas, musical comedies, operas, and films. Among his major achievements at the National Theatre were John Osborne's The Entertainer (1957) and Gorki's The Last Ones (1966).

Other significant directors who emerged from the National Theatre during this period included Jaromír PLESKOT (b. 1922), who became known for his topical interpretations of Shakespeare's plays, such as his Hamlet (1959) and Miroslav MACHÁČEK (1922 - 1991), who specialized in staging the works of older Czech playwrights as well as world classical plays.

The National Theatre experienced a sharp decline in the 1970s and 1980s. Its repertoire became increasingly conservative and its working methods outdated. The artistic work of Miroslav Macháček proved an exception during this period of drama drought. Macháček helped the drama company maintain some semblance of quality with productions such as Stroupežnický's Naši furianti (Our Pigheads, 1979) and an outstanding Hamlet (1982).

Since 1989 the National Theatre has been attempting to restore and rejuvenate its ensembles under new artistic directors. The drama company, guided by Ivan RAJMONT (b. 1945) has oriented itself also thanks to the work of directors Jan Kačer and Miroslav Krobot toward a domestic and European repertoire while the opera company, working under Eva HERMANNOVÁ (b. 1929), and the ballet company, led by Vlastimil HARAPES (b. 1946), were both struggling to raise these troupes to a world level once again.

The second largest theatre in Prague is Divadlo na Vinohradech (Vinohrady Theatre), founded in 1907 as the Vinohrady Municipal Theatre. While constantly competing with the National Theatre in artistic leadership, the company has long maintained a tradition of a true actors' ensemble. During its early years, the group concentrated on expressionism and psychological realism; in 1945 Jiří FREJKA began synthesizing the realistic and avant-garde approaches to acting, applying this new style to classics and exceptional contemporary plays, such as Neveux's Le Voyage de Theésée (The Voyage of Theesee) and Griboyedov's Woe from the Ration.

During the 1960s, when František PAVLÍČEK (b. 1923) ran the theatre, the company became known for its productions directed by Luboš PISTORIUS (1924-1997) and Jaroslav DUDEK (1932-2000) as well as new plays by KOHOUT, AŠKENAZY, and Ivan KLÍMA (b. 1931). Many of these works, such as the 1963 Čapek - Kohout War Against Salamanders, were antiillusionistic and spectacular. In the 1970s and 1980s, many television and film stars worked for this theatre, and the repertoire was adjusted to accomodate them.

Actress Jiřina JIRÁSKOVÁ (b. 1931) took over the artistic direction of the Vinohrady Theatre in 1989, and succeeded in making it Prague's best attended theatre as it boasted a repertoire of popular plays performed by well-known actors. In the early 1990s, its most successful play was Kohout's Ubohý vrah (Poor Murderer).

The Prague Municipal Theatre combined several smaller city stages. Created in 1950 by artists from the Vinohrady Theatre under the direction of Ota ORNEST (b. 1913), this theatre tried to promote a more intimate style of acting, often staging contemporary western plays during the first twenty years of its existence.

This theatre's most important director was Alfréd Radok who, after leaving the National Theatre, staged major productions wuch as Gogol's The Marriage (1963) and Romain Rolland's Play of Love and Death (1964). The company's resident playwright during this period was Vratislav BLAŽEK (1925 - 1973).

Since 1989, the company has operated three theatres whose most stable part is at the moment the ABC stage. Neither the brief period of company Kašpar's (Casper) work in the Rokoko theatre - which has been terminated already - nor the existence of theatre K on the stage of Komedie (Comedy) does not allow us to make any predictions about the future of this complex organism.

Realistické divadlo (The Realistic Theatre) operated in a downtown space which has a tradition of folk theatre extending back into the 1870s. In the 1950s, under the direction of Karel PALOUŠ (b. 1913), it became a workshop producing plays in a dogmatically - interpreted Stanislavski style. At this time, it began to present new plays, such as early works of literary reformers, including Pavlíček and Kohout. During the 1970s, productions by Pistorius drew an enthusiastic audience. By the 1980s, it had become a Prague base for directors who, during the previous decade, had made a name for themselves working in the provinces. Among these were Karel KŘÍŽ (b. 1941), the artistic director of this theatre since 1991; Miroslav KROBOT (b. 1951); and Jiří FRÉHAR (b. 1938).

In 1991, the theatre changed its name to Labyrint (The Labyrinth), and the company changed its image by setting itself up as a cultural centre for Prague's "left bank" and forging a new repertoire geared toward the intellectually-challenging.

Many of Prague's "fringe" theatres can trace their origin back to the literary cabaret, Reduta, founded in 1957. Such companies were created in opposition to the official "big" theatres, and the first of these unofficial groups was the 1958-born Divadlo Na zábradlí (Theatre on the Balustrade) which worked in a variety of genres and styles including drama, pantomime, song, and cabaret. In the 1960s, under the leadership of theorist/director Jan GROSSMAN and repertory-advicer and later playwright Václav HAVEL, the company's drama section created a unique Czech version of the Theatre of the Absurd. Both Grossman and Havel, however, were forced to leave the theatre for political reasons in 1969. Despite the popularity of Havel's works, man of his later plays were only accessible in underground editions and only performed abroad.

In addition to Havel's plays, Theatre on the Balustrade also staged plays such as Jarry's Ubu Roi (1964) and Kafka's The Trial (1966). During the 1970s and 1980s, the company - thanks to the work of director Evald SCHORM - offered provocative and grotesque interpretations of plays such as Hamlet (1978) and adaptations of contemporary Czech or classical Russian prose. Theatre on the Balustrade became the most important theatre in Prague. After Schorm's death in 1988, Grossman returned to the theatre and became its artistic director in 1989, working closely with playwright Karel STEIGERWALD (b. 1945). Not surprisingly, Grossman has achieved major successes with Havel's plays - namely Largo Desolato in 1990 and Pokoušení (Temptation) in 1991. After his death in 1993 Petr LÉBL, director and designer himself, was appointed the artistic director. Petr Lébl is a founder of the Jelo company, and his stagings of plays by Tankred Dorst, Jean Genet, Stroupežnický, and Chekhov indicate that this theatre will succeed in preserving its character as an important experimental stage.

Founded in 1965 as a loose association of stage directors and actors, Činoherní klub (The Drama Club) created productions that featured outstanding casts who, in a relatively small theatre space, were able to maintain close contact with the audience. The founders of The Drama Club - theorist Jaroslav VOSTRÝ (b. 1931), actor and director Jan KAČER, and playwright - and director Ladislav SMOČEK (b. 1932) all contributed significantly to the theatre's success. Guest artists who worked here included the film directors of the Czech "New Wave", Jiří MENZEL (b. 1938) and Evald Schorm. After the theatre's leading personalities were forced to leave the company, critic, actor, and translator Leoš SUCHAŘÍPA (b. 1932) was also prohibited to work there. The ensemble of actors, however, remained, for the most part, unchanged; and the theatre continued to boast a high level of acting and to be very popular with audiences. In 1990, Vostrý once again took charge of the company until his appointment as a rector of AMU (Academy of Performing Arts).

After Otomar Krejča left the National Theatre, he founded (together with a few close colleagues) Divadlo za branou (The Theatre Behind the Gate). Krejča stressed a detailed analysis of the texts, demanded carefully considered interpretations from his actors and insisted that the cast work together in complete harmony (like clockwork), such as that in Krejča's interpretation of Chekhov's plays. Krejča abandoned a historical concept, opting for an existential treatment of the texts, as portrayed in his stagings The Three Sisters (1966) and Ivanoff (1970). In 1972, however, the theatre was closed for political reasons, and Krejča went to work abroad. The company was revived in 1991, and is now called The Theatre Behind the Gate II.

The Semafor Theatre was another notable small stage in Prague during this period. A cabaret created in 1959 by composer Jiří ŠLITR (1924 - 1969) and actor-singer-playwright Jiří SUCHÝ (b. 1931), the Semafor experienced its greatest success with the 1962 production of Jonáš a tingl tangl (Jonah and the Tingle Tangle). During the 1960s, the theatre nurtured a number of very talented singers.

Author, actor, and professional psychologist Ivan VYSKOČIL started Ne-divadlo (Non-Theatre) in 1964. During the difficult decades of the 1970s and 1980s, Vyskočil performed his own texts as improvised theatre tales. His intellectual approach addressed the philosophical ways to escape a nihilistic system which manipulates man. At the 1967-born Divadlo Járy Cimrmana (The Cimrman Theatre), Zdeněk SVĚRÁK (b. 1936) and Ladislav SMOLJAK (b. 1931) continue to develop a humorous, satirical program founded on the principles of mystification and the work of the non-existent jack-of-all-trades personality, Jára Cimrman.

The country's second largest theatre centre is the city of Brno, with a population of 400 000. Since the end of the 1950s, the drama ensemble of the State Theatre has offered a specialized repertoire dealing with Brecht's politically-oriented plays. Director Miloš HYNŠT (b. 1921) has guided the group while working with playwright Ludvík KUNDERA (b. 1920), dramaturge Bořivoj SRBA (b. 1931), and director Evžen SOKOLOVSKÝ.

In 1959 a political satire troupe called Večerní Brno (Evening Brno) joined the State Theatre company. At the end of the 1960s, a number of small groups also came into being. One of the most important is Husa na provázku (Goose on a String, later known as Theatre on a String). Created by Peter SCHERHAUFER (1942-1999), Bořivoj SRBA, Eva TÁLSKÁ (b. 1944), and Zdeněk POSPÍŠIL (1944 - 1992), the company put on productions which portrayed the Czech penchant for translating verbal metaphors into visual ones. Throughout its existence, the company has been an oasis of dramaturgical imagination complete with spontaneous expression and non-ideological poetry. The internationally-acclaimed mime, Boleslav POLÍVKA (b. 1949) worked with this theatre.

Although it has been operating in Brno since 1980, Ha-divadlo was founded by Svatopluk VÁLA (b. 1946) in the town of Prostějov. Later run by Arnošt GOLDFLAM (b. 1946), the company employs a method based on equality between the dramatic word, physical actions, and graphic scenic images; it also utilizes both montage and free association.

Director, actor, playwright, and designer Jan SCHMID (b. 1936) founded Studio Y in Liberec during 1963. The company is known for its actors' method of collective creativity and naively poetic rearrangement of reality, as well as for its improvisation. It moved to Prague in 1978, where it continues to operate.

Ivan RAJMONT, director and head of the National Theatre's drama ensemble since 1989, helped create Činoherní Studio (The Drama Studio) in the town Ústí nad Labem during 1972. This company became known for its absurdist productions as well as for the opportunities it afforded both young playwrights and directors who, at the time, were banned from working in Prague for political reasons.

In addition, the country also boasts a vast network of strong provincial theatres, especially those in Plzeň, Ostrava as well as in other smaller towns. A wide range of semi-professional and even amateur alternative theatres have been operating not only in Prague but also in many other cities since the late 1980s. These theatres share common characteristics: their lack of interest in traditional forms and styles and their opposition to social reality. One of the most important of these groups was Divadlo na okraji (Theatre on the Edge), which existed in Prague from 1970 to 1986 under the direction of Zdeněk POTUŽIL (b. 1947).

Dramaturgy

The death of Karel Čapek in December 1938 marked the end of pre-war Czech dramaturgy. Immediately after the war, several texts by prose writers and poets began to appear on stage. Jan DRDA (1915 - 1970) incorporated the domestic tradition of fairy tale plays, while Josef KAINAR (1917 - 1971) concentrated on contemporary issues by staging satirical and lyrical plays.

Ideological pressure from the Communist Party after 1948, however, soon forced dramaturgical development away from this direction and towards socialist realism. The plays of excellent pre-war dramatists such as Karel Čapek and František Langer disappeared from the repertoires of the theatres. It was only after the thawing of Stalinist politics in the late 1950s that dramatists were at long last able to move away from the stiff conventions of dictated aesthetics. Among the first to do so was František HRUBÍN (1910 - 1971), who in 1958 saw his Chekhovian-styled play, Srpnová neděle (August Sunday) staged at the National Theatre in Prague. His next play, Křišťálová noc (Crystal Night) followed in 1961.

Other writers did not fare so well. Experimental plays by Jiří KOLÁŘ (b. 1914), Chléb náš vezdejší (Our Daily Bread, 1949) and Mor v Athénách (Plague in Athens, 1961), for example, simply never reached the stage.

Among the many important Czech dramatists working during these years, several stand out, such as Josef TOPOL and Václav HAVEL, whose works perhaps best exemplify the two poles of Czech dramatic art. Other notable personalities in this field include Milan UHDE (b. 1936), Ivan KLÍMA, Milan KUNDERA (b. 1929), Pavel KOHOUT, and Ladislav SMOČEK.

Topol served as resident author for the National Theatre workshops led by Otomar Krejča. A sensitive analyst of human relations, his works - at the same time simple yet imaginative - examine the impact of social evils on human intimacy. Among his major works are Jejich den (Their Day, 1960; Konec masopustu (End of the Carnival, 1963); Kočka na kolejích (Cat on the Rails, 1965); Hodina lásky (Hour of Love, 1968), and Sbohem, Sokrate (Goodbye, Socrates, 1976).

The plays Václav Havel wrote during the 1960s as resident author of the avant-garde Theatre on the Balustrade analyzed, above all, the mechanisms of totalitarian might in relation to the fates of individuals. Trademarks of Havel's works include strong thought constructions, machine-like setting of themes, motifs, and speeches. Havel was often considered a member of the absurd theatre dramatists. Ranking among his most important works are Zahradní slavnost (The Garden Party, 1963); Vyrozumění (The Memorandum, 1965); Vernisáž (The Opening, 1975); Largo Desolato (1984); and Pokoušení (Temptation, 1985). At his best, he creates moving parables about the fate of contemporary humanity.

The other dramatists previously mentioned who have all leaned toward the absurd are Uhde in his Král Vávra (King Vavra; 1964); Klíma in his Zámek (The Castle, 1965); and Milan Kundera, another graduate of Krejča's workshop, in many of his works written for the stage as well as in his novels. Among Kundera's important plays are Majitelé klíčů (Owner of the Keys, 1962); and Ptákovina (Stuff and Nonsense, 1968), a burlesque parable dealing with the theme of human might; and an adaptation of a Diderot novel, Jakub a jeho pán (Jacques and His Master, 1970). Kohout's works are more varied, including his August, August, August (1967) and Ubohý vrah (Poor Murderer, 1971).

Many of these same characteristics are revealed in the works of the best dramatists from the Činoherní klub (The Drama Club): such as Ladislav Smoček, author of Podivné odpoledne Dr. Zvonka Burkeho (The Strange Afternoon of Dr. Zvonek Burke, 1966); Alena VOSTRÁ (1938 - 1992), author of Na ostří nože (On the Knife's Edge, 1968); and Pavel Landovský, who also favors writing absurd comedies such as Hodinový Hoteliér (The Hour Hotel Keeper, 1969).

Three other dramatists of note are the Brecht-inspired Ludvík KUNDERA (b. 1920), author of Totální kuropění (Total Cock's Crow, 1964) and Labyrint světa a lusthaus srdce (Labyrinth of the World and Paradise of the Heart, 1983); satirist Vratislav BLAŽEK, author of Třetí přání (The Third Wish, 1960); and František PAVLÍČEK, author of several problem dramas such as Zápas s andělem (Fight with the Angel, 1959) and Nanebevstoupení Sašky Krista (The Assumption of Saska Kristus, 1967).

One of the most popular writers in the post-1969 period was Oldřich DANĚK (b. 1926), who adapted historical themes in his plays such as Vévodkyně valdštejnských vojsk (The Duchess of Wallenstein's Troops, 1981). Among the writers who emerged in the late 1970s and 1980s, the most promising have been Daniela FISCHEROVÁ (b. 1948) with her Princezna Turandot (Princess Turandot, 1986) and Báj (The Fable, 1987); and Karel STEIGERWALD, the author of several analytical dramas about Czech history such as Tatarská pouť (The Tartar Pilgrimage, 1979) and Dobové tance (Period Dance, 1980).

The writings of Bohumil HRABAL (1914-1997) also have become extremely popular thanks to frequent dramatizations of his stories and novels. Among his most widely-acclaimed works are Bambini di Praga (1978) and Hlučná samota (Too Loud A Solitude, 1984), a work which combines a torrent of tavern talk with poetic realism. Jiří Suchý, author of Jonah and the Tingle Tangle (1962) and Ivan Vyskočil, author of Haprdáns or Hamlet, Prince of Denmark (1981) are other plays that have been performed on small stages and have received enthusiastic praise from audiences.

One writer whose works began to enjoy popularity in the post-1989 period is dissident playwright Karol SIDON (b. 1942). Two of his 1972- written plays received attention in the early 1990s - Shapira (staged 1990) and Labyrint aneb Cirkus podle Komenského (The Labyrinth or The Circus According to Comenius, staged 1991).

Finally, it should be noted that during the 1970s and 1980s, when so many significant dramatists were simply not allowed to have their plays performed, many of them worked collectively under false names with particular theatres and created theatrical events that were less literary than theatrical. As such, many of these works cannot be easily defined in print and so remain uniquely tied to the productions at specific theatres.

Music Theatre

Music theatre, in general, and opera theatre, in particular, have a long and rich tradition in the Czech Lands, partially due to their great influence on the development of the monumental fields of the new-age Czech culture during the last two centuries, reaching significantly far into national life.

With the fundamental instigation of Bedřich Smetana's Prodaná nevěsta (The Bartered Bride, 1866), opera rapidly reached a European level. Antonín Dvořák's works such as Rusalka (Naiad, 1901) as well as the creations of Leoš Janáček and Bohuslav Martinů (1890 - 1959) initiated the next development. The expressive interpretative style of both great Prague opera stages - the Czech National Theatre and the German Provincial Theatre - progressed between the two World Wars and is linked to the work of conductors Otakar Ostrčil and Alexandr Zemlinsky. Aside from an international Italian, French, and German repertoire, both theatres devoted much of their time to Mozart's works while the company performing at the German theatre chiefly produced Wagner's works. These theatres also created a modern repertoire in 1924, when the world premiere of Schoenberg's Erwartung took place in the Neues Deutsches Theatre and in 1926, when Berg's Wozzeck was performed in the National Theatre.

Until 1945 operas staged in Bohemia were performed in either the Czech of German language; after 1945 all operas were performed in Czech only. Contemporary opera productions, of course, break this national convention. The Theatre of the Estates, built in 1783, is presently the oldest opera house in Prague; the opera houses in Plzeň, Brno, Ostrava, Olomouc, Ústí nad Labem, Liberec, and Opava also enjoy a lengthy tradition. A modern opera house, dubbed the Janáček Theatre, was built in Brno as recently as 1965.

The style and staging of the larger Prague theatres oriented the creativity of the smaller ones outside of Prague along their pivotal routes. From the end of the 1940s, the dramatic program concentrated on promoting traditional operas, based on an international repertoire; the Czech National opera house had a strong interest in Russian works, chiefly those of Prokofiev.

During the post-war period, the opera of the National Theatre reached its peak, under the guidance of Václav Talich and Jaroslav Krombholc, two of the finest interpreters of Smetana, Janáček, and Mozart opera.

In 1945 the new independent opera ensemble Velká opera 5. května (The Grand Opera of the 5th of May) arose in the former Neues Deutsches Theatre. Under the direction of composer Alois HÁBA (1893 - 1973), whose quarter-tone opera Matka (The Mother) premiered in Munich during 1931, Velká opera developed into an ambitious avant-garde ensemble and became home to some of the country's most important musical talents of the time: conductor and director Václav Kašlík; designer Josef Svoboda, and director Alfréd Radok. The ensemble's emphasis on only the most contemporary of operatic works clearly distinguished it from virtually all other companies in the country. In 1948 this young and progressive theatre ensemble merged with the National Theatre's opera company. The name of the building was changed to the Smetana Theatre. In 1992, under the name of the State Opera Theatre, it became the second major opera stage.

Apart from the National Theatre in Prague, Brno specializes in producting the operatic works of Leoš Janáček. The Janáček operas set realist dramas to music: Jenůfa (based on the drama by G. Preissová); Káťa Kabanová (based on Ostrovský's The Storm); Čapek's play, The Affair Macropoulos; along with written prose: The Cunning Little Vixen (based on the text by Rudolf Těsnohlídek); and From the House of the Dead (based on the novel by Dostojevsky). They incorporate the composer's realistic style enriched with ethnographic motifs. Their style further characterizes the expression of the motifs, the dramatic quality of the material, as well as the succinct melodic invention, rhythmically and concisely animated.

A number of Czech directors also established themselves during this time by focusing on the works by Janáček and other national composers. These notable directors include Ferdinand PUJMAN (1889 - 1962); Václav KAŠLÍK; and Luděk MANDAUS (1898 - 1971).

In the forefront of the 1960s, Bohuslav MARTINŮ, still another noteworthy Czech composer, received national attention again. His works were frequently produced, and among these are Julietta, first staged at the National Theatre in 1938; Mirandolina, first performed at Prague's National Theatre in 1959; and Řecké pašije (Greek Passions), which was succesfully produced both in Prague and in Brno during the 1960s.

Because productions of new works from the West were discouraged by government policy in the 1960s and 1970s, external influences became less and less significant. On the positive side, this forced Czech artists to become more and more imaginative about developing their own work. On the other hand, the policy also left the country without any real sense of the latest contemporary trends in the field. It was only when Czech opera groups were invited to travel abroad on official tours that these Czech companies were able to witness first-hand foreign performances, and that Czech production could begin to penetrate beyond Eastern Europe.

In this sense, when Prague's National Theatre opera company performed at the Edinburgh Festival in 1964, it marked the West's discovery of Janáček's works.

The creations of certain other artists attracted special attention to a number of the smaller Czech opera companies. Of particular note were the accomplishments in the city Ostrava by conductor Jaroslav VOGEL (1894 - 1970), an outstanding interpreter of both Wagner and Janáček as well as the author of a fine monograph on Janáček. In the city of Olomouc, the composer Iša KREJČÍ (1904 - 1968) authored several fine operas including a 1946 adaptation of Shakespeare's Comedy of Errors, called Pozdvižení u Efesu (Uprising in Ephesus); and in the city of Plzeň, conductor Bohumír LIŠKA (1914 - 1990) gave his company a special place in the national repertoire by conducting works by composers such as Britten and Prokofiev.

Director Bohumil HRDLIČKA (b. 1921) started his career in Ostrava, but quickly began working all across the country. Many still consider his 1957 surrealistic production of Mozart's The Magic Flute as definitive within the country. His interpretation of events of the time ensured the opera a framework, generalizing the wartime experiences and post-war totalitarian power; for example, his interpretations involved contemporary costumes of the priests during Sarastro's empire, tests through fire and water, symbolic watch towers of concentration camps, surreal signs of the Queen of the Night's procession. However, their avant-garde qualities set them clearly against the government's official aesthetic doctrines, and Hrdlička eventually left Czechoslovakia for a career in a German-speaking part of Europe, where he was instrumental in introducing Janáček's work.

Two other Czech operatic artists of note also earned major reputations outside the country: conductor Zdeněk CHALABALA (1899 - 1962), who worked most extensively with Moscow's Bolshoi Theatre; and Václav NEUMANN (1920-1995), who worked mostly with Berlin's Komische Oper.

Conductor Rafael KUBELÍK (1914-1996) contributed to the best postwar years of the Covent Garden Theatre, and opera singer Ludmila DVOŘÁKOVÁ (b. 1923), best known for her interpretations of Wagner's creation, has made a name for herself on the great opera stages of the world.

Since the end of World War II, the only other Czech composers of note have been Jan HANUŠ (b. 1915), creator of the 1957 opera Sluha dvou pánů (Servant of Two Men); and Josef BERG (1927 - 1971), creator of the 1967 opera Eufrides před branami Tymén (Euphrides Before the Gates of Tymen).

Dance Theatre

The development of dance theatre, particularly ballet, in the Czech Republic after 1945 can be divided into several clearly-defined stages. The first, in the immediate post-war years, is characterized by the growth of the genre generally within the purview of opera performance, and its attempts, at this time, to break away from the domination of opera.

The major figures in this development were the choreographers Saša MACHOV in Prague and Ivo VÁŇA-PSOTA in Brno. S. Machov's artistic program sprang up from the collaboration with E. F. Burian and his Theatre D 34 - 37 and was inspired by experiencing English ballet during World War II. He attempted to create a specifically Czech national ballet. As head of the National Theatre's ballet group, he formed the basis of the theatre's repertoire with the works of Czech and Russian composers. One example is Zbyněk VOSTŘÁK's (b. 1920) Viktorka staged in 1950. I. Váňa-Psota, a former dancer with the Original Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo, developed an outstanding ensemble working particularly with the Diaghilev repertoire in Brno.

A second phase began in the 1950s when the national policy demanded that art conform to the realistic ballet-drama favoured by the Soviets. Works of this type simply preferred the content, the event, and ideological confession. Perhaps the single choreographer of this period whose work was of real note was Jiří NĚMEČEK (1924 - 1992), a seasoned director who helped create the concept of full-length dramatic ballets. His work peaked in his 1959 production of Othello, which was composed by Jan Hanuš.

A third phase can be said to have begun in the early 1960s with the development of a more poetic ballet based on specific dance expression, abbreviation of movement, exaggeration, and metaphor. Choreography of this period stepped out of the narrowly-defined, canonized territory of the classical pas. The period ushered in a new era of modernization and individual choreographic expression. The number of shorter ballets in the repertoire increased significantly.

Among the important choreographers emerging at this time were Luboš OGOUN (b. 1924) and Pavel ŠMOK (b. 1927), who jointly founded the independent Ballet Prague which existed between 1964 and 1970. Not associated with any specific theatre, the company often toured abroad and became an experimental laboratory for all Czech ballet. A work that typifies the company's style of the early 1960s was Ogoun's 1963 production of Hiroshima in Brno, set to the concrete music of William Bukový. Later on, Šmok's choreography to Janáček's Listy důvěrné (Intimate Letters, 1968) characterized the period. Still another noteworthy choreographer here was Jiří BLAŽEK (b. 1923).

The political turmoil of 1968 and the Prague Spring brought about a return to the spiritual and political climate of the 1950s. Czechoslovak dance lost all contact with the rest of the world when connections abroad were severed. During this time, many important artists emigrated [among them, Jiří KYLIÁN (b. 1948), who in 1977 became artistic director of the Netherlands Dance Theatre]. Artistic standards in Czechoslovakia dropped significantly.

One exception to this trend was the 1980-founded Prague Chamber Ballet, under the direction of Pavel Šmok. His American Quartet (1977), set to the music of Dvořák; his choreography of Smetana's work From my life (1983); and his Transfigured Night (Verklärte Nacht), set to the music of Schoenberg, were highlights of Czech dance during this time. The group also influenced the growth of the art across the country.

The oldest and largest permanent ensemble is the ballet company of the National Theatre with more than 100 members. Among the most important artistic representatives were Miroslav KŮRA (b. 1924), a brilliant dancer-actor and choreographer; Marta DROTTNEROVÁ (b. 1941), the first Czech ballerina of world standard, and dancer Vlastimil HARAPES (b. 1946), the current director of the ballet ensemble.

A number of younger artists began to develop during the late 1980s when some of the dance troupes were established outside the official structures and in some cases in direct opposition to them.

As the 1990s began, nine permanent ballet ensembles were operating in Prague, Brno, Plzeň, Ostrava, and several smaller cities. As well, there were several professional traveling dance ensembles which were attempting to maintain the country's folk tradition, such as the Czechoslovak State Song and Dance Ensemble, founded in 1948.

The country's dance community also has a major publication, Taneční listy (Dance Journal).

Pantomime

Pantomime already was an area of special interest for Czech avantgarde choreographers as far back as the 1930s. During World War II and afterwards, there were new attempts in this genre, especially on the stages of Prague and Brno. By 1948, the art of pantomime fell victim to ideological bans which tried to eliminate evrything from Czech theatre that was not socialist realism in style. At that point, pantomime became simply a branch of dance and actors' training.

The French artists Jean-Louis Barrault and Marcel Marceau, whose films were shown in Czechoslovakia, were the ones who inspired a new generation to take the form seriously and to recreate it as an independent genre. By the end of the 1950s, a number of small mime companies came into existence, the most important one created by Ladislav FIALKA, the co-founder, artistic director, and leading figure of the pantomime troupe at the Theatre on the Balustrade.

The uniquely stylish and poetic character of his pantomime was, on one hand, based on ballet techniques, and, on the other hand, on a strong feeling for plasticity. Working as well with a strong sense of the romantic tradition, Fialka and his troupe performed such full-length productions as Devět klobouků na Prahu (Nine Hats on Prague, 1960); Cesta (Path, 1962); Blázni (Fools, 1965); and Knoflík (The Button, 1968), all of which were remarkable for their unique blend of the fantastic and the picturesque along with a genuine poetic point of view.

The flip side of Fialka's work was that of Ctibor TURBA (b. 1944) and Boris HYBNER (b. 1941), who at their Alfred Jarry Pantomime Ensemble (which existed from 1968 to 1972) worked in an absurdist style. Rejecting traditional mime masks as well as white face, their purposeful ugliness, shocking aggressiveness, and black humour propelled their theatrics to daring extremes. Perhaps their most impressive piece of this style was the 1968 production Harakiri.

During the 1970s and 1980s, another mime of particular importance both withine the country and abroad was Boleslav POLÍVKA (b. 1949). An actor with Brno's Theatre on a String, Polívka went on to create a series of mime performances in which he achieved a genuine synthesis of poetry, intellectual-political jests, and clowning. He was at his most inventive in such works as Pépé (1974) and Šašek a Královna (The Jester and the Queen, 1983).

Throughout the late 1970s and in the 1980s, pantomime became extremely popular because it could speak - without using words - to an audience about officially-banned topics. The development of the genre led to the formations of a lot of different mime ensembles of various styles. Since 1973 the unique program of the Křesadlo (The Flint Theatre) - led jointly by Václav MARTINEC (b. 1936) and Nina VANGELI (b. 1946) - developed the artistic protest through the form of motion theatre. In 1981, the Braník Pantomime Theatre opened in Prague and has hosted many semi-professional groups. In the mid-1980s, the department for pantomime education was founded at the Musical Academy of Performing Arts in Prague. After 1989 Czech nimes created several private theatres and schools.

Theatre for Young Audiences

The tradition of staging plays for young audiences in the Czech Republic is a clear continuation of a form that had its modern beginnings in Russia. Czech performances, however, vary greatly from naturalistic retellings of classic children's fairy tales and often include original poetic works which may or may not have didactic purposes.

The first professional Czech theatre for young people was founded in Prague during 1935 by Míla MELLANOVÁ (1899 - 1964). After the war three new companies emerged: in Prague, the Jiří Wolker Theatre (1953); in Brno, the Julius Fučík Theatre (1955 - 1965); and in Ostrava, the Petr Bezruč Theatre (1951). All staged productions exclusively for schools.

In the 1960s, however, director Jan KAČER (b. 1936), during his short time there, began to stage some performances for adults as well at the Bezruč Theatre, extending the notion of theatre for the young in the process.

Besides those companies specializing in this field, a number of other groups also included occasional performances for young people in their repertoires. One of the most consistent in this respect was Prague's Pocket Theatre, headed by mime Zdeňka KRATOCHVÍLOVÁ (b. 1936).

Young people were also enormously attracted to the workshop productions, directed by Eva TÁLSKÁ (b. 1944) at Brno's Theatre on a String as well as those by Jan SCHMID (b. 1936) at Prague's Studio Y.

For the record, Czechoslovakia is one of the founding members of ASSITEJ, the international association for children´s and young people's theatre. The organization's first international congress was held in Prague during 1965.

Puppet Theatre

Puppet Theatre was enormously popular in the Bohemian countryside at the end of the eighteenth and the first half of the nineteenth centuries. Dozens of wandering puppet troupes helped to preserve the Czech language as well as a sense of pride for the Czech nation in the predominantly German environment. Modern puppetry must to be understood keeping in mind the genre's historical origins.

The earliest of the modern ensembles in the Czech territories was that founded in Plzeň during 1930 by Josef SKUPA (1892 - 1957). In 1945 this company changed its name to Divadlo Spejbla a Hurvínka (Spejbl and Hurvinek Theatre) and its home to Prague. The company was a unique modern professional troupe working alongside a number of travelling groups before World War II. In 1948, when puppetry was involved in the nationalization of the country's theatres, this art was given the same professional status as other theatrical forms.

By 1949, a network of professional puppet troupes performed across the country, but their members were often recruited from amateur groups. One man who contributed to the professionalization of puppet theatre as an art at this time was Jan MALÍK (1904 - 1980), who as far back as 1930 has gained a reputation as a reformer in the field.

In 1949, Malík founded the Ústřední loutkové divadlo (Central Puppet Theatre) in Prague, a company which operated for many years in the pictorial tradition perfected by the Soviet puppet master Sergei Obraztsov. The use of the traditional rod puppets significantly influenced the choice of the repertoire. From 1950 on, this company continued to set the fairy tale Zlatovláska (The Golden-Haired Princess) by Josef Kainar is still one of the mainstays in Czech puppet dramaturgy.

By the second half of the 1950s, however, Malík's style became too dependent on words, reducing the puppet to simply an illustrative object. Those that opposed this style included the experimental group Salamandr in the Spejbl and Hurvínek Theatre as well as the students of puppetry at the Academy of Performing Arts, founded by Skupa in 1952 as the world's first university-level school of puppetry.

The development of the genre in the ensuing years can be characterized as an oscillation between two poles: on one hand, there were the productions which presented the world realistically; on the other hand, there were the productions which strove to achieve a non-realistic communication with the viewer. It is this latter direction which has led the form into the further developments relating to the poetics of theatrical objects and the exploration of the stage metaphor.

The general resurgence of interest in the marionette tradition can be seen in the innovative work of the company Drak, based in the city Hradec Králové. Founded in the mid-1960s by Vladimír MATOUŠEK (1900 - 1977) and later under the direction of Jan DVOŘÁK (b. 1925), the company has played a significant role in the development of the form thanks to the audacious dramaturgy and directorial inventiveness of Dvořák, Josef KROFTA (b. 1943), and the woodworking artistry of František VÍTEK (b. 1929) as well as the design and technological virtuosity of Petr MATÁSEK (b. 1944).

Drak's productions tend to combine the use of puppets, live actors, and stage props, the latter which can be interpreted in many different ways. The company has performed in many theatres for both children and adults. Among their major successes are Šípková Růženka (Sleeping Beauty, 1976); Sněhurka (Snow White, 1979); Popelka (Cinderella, 1982); and the philosophical allegory, Píseň života (Song of Life, 1985).

Founded in 1949, the puppet company Loutkové divadlo v Liberci (The Puppet Theatre in Liberec) is another group that has made significant contributions in this genre. Known as the Naivní divadlo (Naive Theatre) since 1968, this group is especially reputed for its "mateřinky" which utilize playfulness and fantasy as artistic guides. The company's key figure is stage designer/puppeteer Pavel KALFUS (b. 1942).

The Divadlo Spejbla a Hurvínka (Spejbl and Hurvinek Theatre) has continued to retain a prominent position in the field thanks to the leadership of Skupa's successor, Miloš KIRSCHNER (1927-1996). The company also continues to be one of the country's most popular groups, thanks to its high standards and its productions for both children and adults. The characters the company was named for, the mythical and very popular Spejbl and Hurvinek, have appeared in many productions since the 1920s and continue to do so.

These positive developments in this art, however, have led to an enormous dependence on the directors and an underestimated use of the puppet itself as a means of expression. Nevertheless, this genre remains very popular.

At the beginning of the 1990s, ten professional Czech puppet groups existed, all state subsidized. In addition, there were dozens of amateur groups and several black light companies. The most significant was the independent Černé divadlo (The Black Theatre), founded in 1964 by Jiří SRNEC (b. 1931). Their productions - such as Létající velociped (The Flying Bicycle, 1975) and Alenka v říši divů (Aspects of Alice, 1989) - straddle the boundaries between pantomime and puppet theatre as objects move in a kind of fantastic free-play.

Still another group, Vedené divadlo (The Guided Theatre) had a short existence in Prague between 1969 and 1972, under the direction of Karel MAKONJ (b. 1947). This company, in its 1969 production of Camus' La Malentendu (The Misunderstanding), introduced giant mannequinlike puppets to the stage, and this kind of puppet has subsequently been used by other groups.

Perhaps the most striking contemporary trend in Czech puppetry is the simultaneous use of both puppets and live actors, a style particularly used by both Drak in Hradec Králové and Naivní divadlo (The Naive Theatre) in Liberec.

Finally, it should be noted that one of the oldest puppet magazines in the world, Český loutkář (The Czech Puppeteer, since 1993 Puppeteer) was founded in Prague during 1912. In 1929, UNIMA, the international puppetry organization, was also established in Prague.

Theatre Design

Czech stage design during the second half of the twentieth century has been closely tied to movements in the field of art from the pre-World War II period. Cubist architecture - a movement centered around the work of Pavel JANÁK (1882 - 1956) - entered Czech theatre around 1920 under the banner of expressionism and cubo-futurism.

Introduced by such artists as Vlastislav HOFMAN (1884 - 1964), Bedřich FEUERSTEIN (1892 - 1936) and Jiří KROHA (1893 - 1974), this approach was further developed by František TRÖSTER (1904 - 1968). Tröster's discovery of "dramatic space" in the 1930s anticipated the principle of sculptural architecture in the 1960s.

Soviet constructivism inspired the Czech avant-garde movements of the 1920s and helped create a new individual style - "poetism". This new approach was inspired by the Dada movement and by artists such as Mayakovsky, Apollinaire, and Picasso. This style was translated onto the stage by directors Jiří Frejka and Jindřich Honzl and by the architect Antonín HEYTHUM (1901 - 1954). Osvobozené divadlo (The Liberated Theatre) proved the hub of its activities.

At this theatre Emil František Burian began his career. Burian, together with Miroslav KOUŘIL (1911 - 1984), employed slide and film projection in their work at the Divadlo D 34 (D 34 Theatre), dramatically linking these elements with the overall visual composition. Their "Theatregraph", patented in 1938 and directly related to the film technology of the 1936 - 1938 period, involved the use of a transparent projection area across the front of the stage.

The onset of World War II and the nationalization of all the professional theatres during 1948 disrupted the natural evolution of design in the country. The need to follow prescribed forms and the 1968 occupation by Soviet forces further prevented free developments in the field. Despite these barriers, there were short spurts of significant creative activity during the years just prior to 1948 and during the twelve years from 1956 to 1968.

In Prague, it was Velká opera 5. května (The Grand Opera of the 5th of May) which began to develop entire programs around the work of the country's most imaginative designers - notably Josef Svoboda - in the immediate post-war period (1945 - 1948). Svoboda's work showed not only imagination but also simplicity, and his career quickly catapulted him to the stage of the National Theatre and later abroad.

After a short period during which he experimented with socialist realism, he developed, in collaboration with Otomar Krejča and Alfréd Radok, the concept of psycho-plastic space capable of expressing a wide range of changes in dramatic settings. Svoboda's 1957 design for Bohumil Hrdlička's production of Mozart's opera, The Magic Flute, indicated new ways to exploit the visual aspects of the stage through both technique and technology, especially in the use of lighting.

At the 1957 world exposition in Brussels, Svoboda presented a program with director Emil Radok and Laterna Magika (The Magic Lantern) company utilizing the "Polyekran", still another innovation in this new direction. In 1959, these new concepts won Czechoslovakia first prize at an international design competition at the Sao Paulo Biennale in Sao Paulo, Brazil. F. Tröster earned a gold medal as the Best Foreign Stage Designer, marking the first of many such awards received by Czech designers at this event in the coming years. Later recipients included Svoboda himself, Jiří TRNKA (1912 - 1969), Vladimír NÝVLT (b. 1927), and Oldřich ŠIMÁČEK (b. 1919).

International design successes such as these inspired the 1967 creation of a similar Czechoslovak event, the Prague Quadrennial, the world's largest international exhibition of stage design and theatre architecture.

Subsequent national trends in this field during the mid-1960s involved designers such as Zbyněk KOLÁŘ (b. 1926) and Vladimír ŠRÁMEK (b. 1927), stylizing dramatic reality into strongly aesthetic abstract or symbolic signs, while Zdeněk SEYDL (1916 - 1978) created solitary and purely visual art productions.

Towards the end of the 1960s, stage stylization began to be separated into specific elements either accentuated or taken out of normal contexts. By 1975, a new "action" stage design emerged, consisting of a constant confrontation of empirical and dramatic realities with the on-stage actor as their living organizer. Costume design, too, became a new centre of artistic dramatic expression, as evidenced in Libor FÁRA's (1925 - 1988) designs for Grossman's 1964 production of Jarry's Ubu Roi at the Theatre on the Balustrade.

Throughout the 1980s, graduates of various stage design schools for the most part determined the characteristic designs. The work of specialists who were neither painters nor architects represents even more contemporary examples of action stage design, including Otakar SCHINDLER (b. 1923); Jaroslav MALINA (b. 1937); Jan DUŠEK (b. 1942); Miroslav MELENA (b. 1937); Jan KONEČNÝ (b. 1951); Ivo ŽÍDEK (b. 1948); and Marta ROSZKOPFOVÁ (b. 1947). This school reflects the humble nature of the surroundings at the challenge of the 1960s "arte povera". Linked with the small theatres, it managed to survive until the end of the 1980s. The youngest generation reveals itself with purposeful anarchy towards its expressional surroundings. Action set designs are being driven out and abused by new graphic designs.

Perhaps the single protesting voice of design during this period is Jan VANČURA (b. 1940), who has been inspired by the Romantic designs of the nineteenth century.

Entering the 1990s, the Czech stage seems to facour collage and assemblage forms, and a trend is developing toward decoration and even kitsch, apparent in the work of Daniel DVOŘÁK (b. 1954) and Karel GLOGR (b. 1958). This form was first seen in costume design which bridged the older and newer styles. Among those working in this way the key figures are Jindřiška HIRSCHOVÁ (b. 1922), Helena ANÝŽOVÁ (b. 1936), Irena GREIFOVÁ (b. 1939), and Josef JELÍNEK (b. 1949).

Architecture and Technology

Most theatre buildings in both the Czech and Slovak territories were built in the traditional Italian style. The oldest ones have all been declared historical monuments. Two of the most architecturally and theatrically significant buildings are Prague's Stavovské divadlo (Theatre of the Estates, 1783), a building designed in the classical style by Anton HAFFENECKER (1725 - 1783), and the host of the world premiere of Don Giovanni in 1787; and the National Theatre, built in 1883 by Josef ZÍTEK (1832 - 1909) from donations by Czech citizens during the major period of national revival.

In Brno, the Mahen Theatre, completed in 1882, is a major architectural achievement. Another unique building is the baroque-style Castle Theatre, constructed during 1767 in Český Krumlov. This theatre has been preserved in its entirety, including original stage decorations and props.

At the time of the creation of the Czechoslovak state in 1918, twenty-three independent theatre buildings existed; twenty-two of them are still used for productions. After 1918, more buildings and halls were added in smaller towns.

Among the significant theatres built since 1945 are the 620- seating capacity, open-air theatre with a Johan BREHMS (b. 1907) - designed revolving stage, constructed in Český Krumlov during 1958; and the Janáček Opera House in Brno, which has two side-stages and one rearstage. Built in 1965 by the team of Jan VÍŠEK (1890 - 1966), Vilém ZAVŘEL (b. 1910), and Libuše ŽÁČKOVÁ (b. 1921), this theatre boasts a seating capacity of 1 383, a 20 by 22 meter stage, and an orchestra pit that can accommodate ninety musicians.

The City Theatre in Zlín, with a seating capacity of 796 and a 19 by 23,5 meter stage, was built in 1967 by Miroslav ŘEPA (b. 1924) and František ROZHOŇ (b. 1926). The ground plan of the auditorium is based on the Gropious oval of a conventional theatre. A segment of the proscenium can be used as a forty-musician orchestra pit.

Built in 1987 by Ivo KLIMEŠ (b. 1932), The City Theatre in Most consists of a trapezoid-shaped stage which narrows from 31 meters to 16 meters with a depth measuring 13,6 meters. The proscenium arch is 7,5 meters high with a width ranging from 12 to 21,5 meters. The auditorium seats 500 spectators.

The National Theatre's New Scene in Prague is an open space designed during 1983 by Karel PRAGER (b. 1923). The auditorium seats 510 and has space for twenty-four musicians.

Training

In the Czech territories state conservatories exist on the secondary school level (13 to 18 years of age) for the training of actors, musicians, and dancers in three cities: Prague (though the conservatory was founded back in 1808, the drama department was only established in 1919); in Brno (founded in 1919); and in Ostrava (established in 1959).

Advanced training is provided by the 1946-founded Akademie múzických umění (Academy of Performing Arts) in Prague, which has several faculties; and by the Janáček Academy of Performing Arts in Brno, established a year later than the one in Prague. Both institutions train aspiring professional for different branches of theatre, dance, music, and film. Since 1952, the Academy of Performing Arts in Prague has also had a special chair in puppet theatre, one of the first in the world. It was transferred 1990 in The Department of Alternative and Puppet Theatre. Both academies have their own theatres and opera studios.

A number of so-called Primary Schools of Art across the country also offer theatre training for amateurs during evenings. Since the begginning of the 90s have emerged also new privat establishments on the field (Duncan Centre Conservatory).

Critism, Scholarship, and Publishing

The foundations for modern Czech theatre analysis were laid by Otakar ZICH (1879 - 1934) in his seminar book, The Aesthetics of Dramatic Art, published in 1931. In this work, Zich argues that theatre should be a dynamic concert involving a wide range of elements while, at the same time, laying the broad foundations for taking the semiotic approach to art.

The later Prague structuralists too found their work growing directly of Zich's essential ideas. Among them were Jan MUKAŘOVSKÝ (1891 - 1975); Petr BOGATYREV, a Russian scientist living in Prague; and still later, Jiří VELTRUSKÝ (1919 - 1993), who left the country in 1948.

The development of Czech structuralism was interrupted in the late 1940s and early 1950s by official government attempts to deny that this movement had any validity whatsoever for socialist art. As a result, at this time, there was virtually no collaboration between theatre studies, aesthetics, and the more general theories of art. Theories were, in fact, developed almost by accident as a by-product of the activities of dramatists, directors (particularly Jan Grossman), and critics. Most theories appeared as essays rather than as books. Interestingly, when Mukařovský's Studies of Aesthetics was published in 1966, semiological research - particularly as it related to music theatre and the work of Ivo OSOLSOBĚ (b. 1928) - was clearly tied to structuralist concepts.

In the post-war years, Czech theatre studies developed a wider institutional base when the Chairs of Theatre Studies were established at Prague's Charles University and at the University of Brno. Serving as the Prague Chairs were former dramaturge of the National Theatre, František GÖTZ (1894 - 1974); and historians Jan KOPECKÝ (1919 - 1992) and František ČERNÝ (b. 1926).

In history, the Cabinet for Czech's Theatre Stadium under leading František Černý created the important four-volume Dějiny českého divadla (History of Czech Theatre) which covers Czech theatre from the Middle Ages to 1945 and was published by the Academia Prague between 1968 and 1983.

Since 1959, Prague's Divadelní ústav (Theatre Institute) has compiled national theatre documentation. The older documents are housed in Prague's National Museum and in Brno's Moravian Museum.

Special theories are found in the literature by Růžena VACKOVÁ (1901 - 1982), Výtvarný projev v dramatickém umění (Visual Artistic Expression in Set Design and the Dramatic Arts), published in 1948; and Věra PTÁČKOVÁ's (b. 1933) Česká scénografie 20. století (Czech Stage Design in the Twentieth Century), published in 1982.

In the immediate post-war years, the key journals for theory and criticism were Divadelní zápisník (Theatre Notebook) and Otázky divadla a filmu (Problems of Stage and Film). At the end of the 1950s, a new generation of critics and theorists contributed to the periodical Divadlo (Theatre) and Divadelní noviny (Theatre News), both of which ceased publication in 1970.

During the late 1970s, the most important source of theatre criticism was Scéna (Stage), which in the 1980s became a centre for critical attacks on official cultural policies. In 1986, the samizdat review O divadle (About Theatre) became a voice for dissidents in theatre. Since 1989, many new publications have also appeared, including Divadelní revue (Theatre revue), which began publication in 1989; Svět a divadlo (World and Theatre), which began publication in 1990; and Divadelní noviny (Theatre News), which was started as recently as 1992, and Czech and Slovak Theatre (1991) renamed since 1994 Czech Theatre.

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